HSC Business Studies-Operations PROCESSES

Operations PROCESSES

HSC Business Studies - Language of Operations

Key term: Higher School Certificate (HSC)

Language of Business Operations

It is believed, advised and affirmed that through language, people acknowledge about the world; and language is the heart of any learning processes (Derewanka & Jones, 2012). Therefore, in the context of learning and teaching HSC Business Studies focusing on Operations, understanding the language of business operations holds a crucial role that ensures and helps our students successfully reach their learning outcomes. 

The topic of Operations is one of the four key parts, [other three topics are Finance, Marketing, and Human Resources], set in the HSC Business Studies course offering as a selective subject for senior stage students [Year 11 and Year 12], in NSW high schools.

The following image provides an overview of a picture achieving the Language of Operations that the activities and/or actions are designed and implemented to thrive the mentioned course's requirements.

Interestingly, the recent information released on the NESA site shows that in 2016, Business Studies stands in the 4th position of the top 15 [HSC] subjects (NESA, 2016). Moreover, getting available data from that site, my research (2016) indicates that Business Studies is one of the top two popular subjects which had continuously been chosen by students for their Higher School Certificate, over the 10 years from 2005 to 2015. This result is delivering a message that teaching and learning language using for Business Studies, including Language of Operations, becomes vitally important in order to meet the demand of students' choice and their selective learning.

References 

Derewianka, B. M. & Jones, P. T. (2012). Teaching language in context. Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
NESA, 2016. Overview - Top 15 subjects. Retrieved on 4th October 2017 from http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/bos_stats/media-guide-2016/overview.html

Link to my Top Two Popular Subjects by Students Choice in NSW High Schools from the past 10 years 2005-2015.

What is Balance Sheet?

HSC Business Studies-Topic3: Finance
Posted by Lydia Le

Statement of Financial Position

What is Balance Sheet?

According to Investopedia (2017), a balance sheet is defined as ‘a financial statement that summarizes a company's assets, liabilities and shareholders' equity at a specific point in time. These three balance sheet segments give investors an idea as to what the company owns and owes, as well as the amount invested by shareholders.’

Clearly, a balance sheet provides information that helps identify and discover the business position focusing on three key account areas/account components or concerns:

            1-Assets: Items the business owns

            2-Liabilities: Debts the business owes, and

            3-Owners' Equity: The amount of money is owing to business owners (The business and its owners are the separate entities by law)

What does it look like? 

As mentioned above, a balance sheet must show three key things of Assets, Liabilities, and Owners' Equity. For example, a pattern of a Balance Sheet - showing what it looks like, encompassing these key things can be displayed as below.

Balance Sheet

          As of 30th June 20XX [End of Financial Year]

ASSETS	[the business owns]
	Current Assets (CA)
	Cash (incl. Petty cash & Bank)	$$$$$
	Accounts receivable	$$$$$
	Inventory /Stock           Pre-paid expenses	$$$$$      $$$$$
	Total Current Assets	CA-$$$$$$
	Non-Current Assets (NCA)
	Plant and equipment(incl. Land)	$$$$$
	Business premises(incl.Property)	$$$$$
	Vehicles & Furniture	$$$$$
	Total Non-Current Assets	NCA-$$$$$
TOTAL ASSETS (TA) LIABILITIES [the business owes]		CA+NCA-$$$$$$$
	Current Liabilities (CL)
	Accounts payable	$$$
	Bank overdraft	$$$
	Credit card debt (payable)           Accrued wages	$$$ $$$
	Tax liability	$$$
	Total Current Liabilities	CL-$$$$
	Non-Current Liabilities (NCL)
	Long-term loan L1	$$$$
	Long-term loan L2	$$$$
	Total Non-Current Liabilities	NCL-$$$$
TOTAL LIABILITIES (TL)		CL+NCL-$$$$
NET ASSETS (TA-TL)		$$$$$$
OWNERS' EQUITY		$$$$$$

[money left over to owners - Owner's Equity is also called Shareholders' Equity]

Note: the figures of Net Assets and Owners' Equity are always the same - They are in balance. That's why we call the Balance Sheet.

Why does Balance Sheet matter? 

To sustain business growth, understanding the situation and position of the business' financial health is extremely important. A balance sheet describes this position as a "snapshot of a company's financial condition" (Wikipedia, 2017). For that reason, a Balance Sheet is also known as a 'statement of financial position'.

Through the Balance Sheet, it provides information about the position health of a business at any operating period that shows the business is strong or not. It is believed that at any particular moment, Balance sheet helps the business know and determine that how much money the business would have left if its all assets are sold to pay off all the business debts (Business Queensland, 2017).  

In addition, internally, the Balance Sheet reveals the money that the business owns and owes, and how much is left over for its owners so that this helps business' managers in making decisions in terms of allocating the money within its operations. 

For effective decision-making on money's allocation to run day-to-day business operations, and control money to pay the business' current debts, the balance sheet provides crucially financial information. This helps the Finance staff work out the business' working capital and business liquidity. Knowing the working capital and liquidity gives the finance manger/s a powerful tool and indication in determining the financial health and position of the business.

More importantly, externally in particular for medium and large companies, by knowing the business' financial position at any particular moment, the Balance Sheet is bringing information and assisting investors in decision-making whether to invest their money in that business or not.

How is Balance Sheet used in practice?

The Balance Sheet (BS) adheres to the following formula: Net Assets = Owners’ Equity 
Where     Net Assets = Total Assets – Total Liabilities
(Owners’ Equity is also known as Shareholders' Equity)

The procedure of practice includes:

1-Collect information putting in BS in which the components of Current Assets and Non-Current Assets, Current Liabilities and Non-Current Liabilities are included.
2-Produce a Balance Sheet for the business
3-Analyse all figures/information
4-Provide/deliver sound decision-making for the business.

Useful links and References

Investopedia (2017). Balance Sheet. Retrieved 3/10/2017 from http://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/balancesheet.asp

Queensland Government-Business Queensland (2017). Understanding Balance Sheets. Retrieved 3/10/2017 from https://www.business.qld.gov.au/running-business/finances-cash-flow/managing-money/financial-statements-forecasts/balance-sheets

Wikipedia (2017). Balance Sheet. Retrieved 3/10/2017 from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance_sheet

[HSC Operations]

The TEN (10) ACARA Writing Assessment Criteria and Scores

Back to my Learning Teaching Writing site

Learning Writing Marking - Writing Marking Guide 

My Collection – The Ten ACARA Writing Assessment Criteria and Scores

Concentrating on the Australian schooling context and delivering information about Writing Marking Guide in supporting marking students' writings, this page displays my collection of the TEN writing criteria which have been advised and instructed by the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Authority (ACARA, 2013 & 2016) for Persuasive and Narrative Writing.

The focus of the Writing Marking Guide consisting of these TEN writing criteria includes (1)Audience, (2)Text Structure, (3)Ideas, (4)P-Persuasive Device [for Persuasive writing], OR N-Character and Setting [for Narrative writing], (5)Vocabulary, (6)Cohesion, (7)P-Persuasive Paragraphing and N-Narrative Paragraphing, (8)Sentence Structure, (9)Punctuation, and (10)Spelling.

Within each criterion, scores designing for writing tasks are set from the lowest category 0 to its highest category level. The highest level is the category 6. Different criteria may have different category-score-ranges. For example, the Audience criterion has seven category scores ranging from 0 to 6; the Text Structure criterion has five category scores ranging from 0 to 4; the Idea criterion has six category scores ranging from 0 to 5; the Persuasive Devices, and the Character and Setting criteria have five category scores ranging from 0 to 4; the Vocabulary criterion has six category scores ranging from 0 to 5; the Cohesion criterion has five category scores ranging from 0 to 4; The Persuasive Paragraphing criterion has four category scores ranging from 0 to 4 while the Narrative Paragraphing has three category scores ranging from 0 to 2; the Sentence Structure criterion has seven category-scores ranging from 0 to 6; the Punctuation criterion has six category scores ranging from 0 to 5; and the Spelling criterion has seven category-scores ranging from 0 to 6.

In another explanation, on this page the scores are also known as the category scores, the above criteria having different score ranges can be summarized as follows:
       -one criterion with three (3) category scores ranging from 0 to 2 is Narrative Paragraphing.
       -one criterion with four (4) category scores ranging from 0 to 3 is Persuasive Paragraphing
       -three groups of criteria with five (5) category scores ranging from 0 to 4 are Text Structure, Persuasive Devices /Character and Setting, and Cohesion.
       -three groups of criteria with six (6) category scores ranging from 0 to 5 are Ideas, Vocabulary, and Punctuation.
       -three groups of criteria with seven (7) category scores ranging from 0 to 6 are Audience, Sentence Structure, and Spelling.

An image for the above information can be seen as below.

(Note: using the label P for Persuasive, and N for Narrative).

In addition, the mentioned information for Writing Marking Guide can publicly be found through searching drivers or obtainable tools such as Google or Bing.

For my lifelong learning purposes, and convenient learning space, the following preparation of the TEN writing criteria with their category scores is selected and collected from the available data that are accessible and provided by ACARA, the NAPLAN program, NAPLAN Assessment Framework, and other reliable sites such as Barrenjoey High. (Date accessed 10 July 2017)

Writing Marking Framework   Information Sources: ACARA, National Assessment Program, NAPLAN Assessment Framework, Barrenjoey High Date accessed 10 July 2017 Lydia Le - My Collection of  Learning Marking Writing
Criterion	Persuasive		Narrative		Scores
1-Audience	The writer’s capacity to orient, engage and persuade the reader		The writer’s capacity to orient, engage and affect the reader		0-6
	• symbols or drawings which have the intention of conveying meaning				0
	• response to audience needs is limited • the text contains simple written content				1
	• shows basic awareness of audience expectations through attempting to orient the reader • provides some information to support reader understanding				2
	• orients the reader -- an internally consistent persuasive text that attempts to support the reader by developing a shared understanding of context		• orients the reader: – an internally consistent story that attempts to support the reader by developing a shared understanding of context		3
	• supports reader understanding AND • begins to engage and persuade reader through language choices		• supports reader understanding AND • begins to engage the reader		4
	• supports, engages and persuades the reader through deliberate language choices and persuasive techniques		• supports and engages the reader through deliberate choice of language and use of narrative devices		5
	• controls writer/reader relationship - establishes strong, credible voice - crafts writing to influence reader by precise and sustained language choices and persuasive techniques - takes readers’ values and expectations into account		• caters to the anticipated values and expectations of the reader • influences or affects the reader through the precise and sustained choice of language and use of narrative devices		6
2-Text Structure	The organisation of the structural components of a persuasive text (introduction, body and conclusion) into an appropriate and effective text structure		The organisation of narrative features including orientation, complication and resolution into an appropriate and effective text structure.		0-4
	• no evidence of any structural components of a persuasive text		• no evidence of any structural components of a time sequenced text		0
	• minimal evidence of persuasive structure - structural components not clearly identifiable OR - one component only, e.g. an introduction or body		• minimal evidence of narrative structure, e.g. a story beginning only or a ‘middle’ with no orientation • a recount of events with no complication		1
	• the text contains two clearly identifiable structural components OR • all components are present but weak		• contains a beginning and a complication • where a resolution is present it is weak, contrived or ‘tacked on’		2
	• the text contains an introduction, a body, and conclusion OR • detailed longer text with two developed components and one weaker component		• contains orientation, complication, and resolution • detailed longer text may resolve one complication and lead into a new complication or layer a new complication onto an existing one rather than conclude		3
	• coherent, controlled and complete argument • all components are well developed - introduction with a clear position statement AND - body with reasons and detailed supporting evidence AND - conclusion that reinforces the writer’s position		• coherent, controlled and complete narrative, employing effective plot devices in an appropriate structure, and including an effective ending		4
3-Ideas	The selection, relevance and elaboration of ideas for a persuasive argument		The creation, selection and crafting of ideas for a narrative		0-5
	***no evidence or insufficient evidence                         •symbols or drawings                         • title only				0
	• one idea OR  • ideas are very few and very simple OR  • ideas appear unrelated to each other OR  • ideas appear unrelated to prompt				1
	• one idea with simple elaboration OR • ideas are few and related but not elaborated OR • many simple ideas are related but not elaborated				2
	• ideas are supported with some elaboration OR • many unelaborated ideas that relate plausibly to the argument (four or more) OR • one idea with more developed elaboration [may also contain ineffective or unrelated ideas / may be assertions /opinions]		• ideas show some development or elaboration • all ideas relate coherently - some ideas may contain unnecessary elaboration (waffle)		3
	• ideas are elaborated and contribute effectively to the writer’s position Chore [• ideas may include  -- benefits to the whole group (more than just personal)  -- reflection on the wider world/ universal issues • ideas may be elaborated by, e.g. -- a range of issues both for and against the stated position  -- a refutation of other positions or opinions -- explaining cause and effect]		• ideas are substantial and elaborated AND contribute effectively to a central storyline • the story contains a suggestion of an underlying theme		4
	• ideas are generated, selected and crafted to be highly persuasive [• ideas may include  -- benefits to the whole group (more than just personal)  -- reflection on the wider world/ universal issues • ideas may be elaborated by, e.g. -- a range of issues both for and against the stated position  -- a refutation of other positions or opinions -- explaining cause and effect]]		• ideas are generated, selected and crafted to explore a recognisable theme • ideas are skilfully used in the service of the storyline [• ideas may include: – psychological subjects – unexpected topics – mature viewpoints – elements of popular culture – satirical perspectives – extended metaphor – traditional sub-genre subjects: heroic quest / whodunnit / good vs evil / overcoming the odds		5
4-Persuasive Devices  / Character & setting	Persuasive Devices The use of a range of persuasive devices to enhance the writer’s position and persuade the reader		Character and setting Character (character-driven): The portrayal and development of character Setting(setting-driven): The development of a sense of place, time and atmosphere These  are essential components of effective narrative writing.		0-4
	• no evidence or insufficient evidence [• symbols or drawings • writes in wrong genre • title /topic only]				0
	• uses a statement or statements of personal opinion OR • uses one or two instances of persuasive devices (may be the same type) [• opinion may appear confused or contradictory  • uses only simple devices (I think … very, very) • I reckon ... should ... because forms one instance of a persuasive device]		• only names characters or gives their roles (e.g. father, the teacher, my friend, dinosaur, we, Jim) AND/OR • only names the setting (e.g. school, the place we were at) • setting is vague or confused		1
	• uses three or more instances of persuasive devices that support the writer’s position (at least two types) [• may have more devices than required but these are ineffective]		• suggestion of characterisation through brief descriptions or speech or feelings, but lacks substance or continuity AND/OR • suggestion of setting through very brief and superficial descriptions of place and/or time		2
	• uses some devices that persuade • use is effective but not sustained (may also include some ineffective use) [there are many devices that can be used to persuade a reader -- effective devices are appropriate to the style of argument and may appeal to one or more of the reader’s reason, values or emotions]		• characterisation emerges through descriptions, actions, speech or the attribution of thoughts and feelings to a character AND/OR • setting emerges through the description of the place, time and atmosphere		3
	• sustained and effective use of persuasive devices [there are many devices that can be used to persuade a reader -- effective devices are appropriate to the style of argument and may appeal to one or more of the reader’s reason, values or emotions]		• effective characterisation: details are selected to create distinct characters AND/OR • Maintains a sense of setting throughout. Details are selected to create a sense of place and atmosphere.		4
5-Vocabulary	The range and precision of contextually appropriate language choices		The range and precision of language choices		0-5
	• symbols or drawings      • title only				0
	• very short script   • few content words				1
	• mostly simple words  / • may include two or three precise words or word groups [• single nouns / • single verbs / • simple verb groups /• simple noun groups / • adjectives and adverbs  / • simple comparisons (as much as she can, the best teacher I ever had, one of the fastest)] / • mostly simple verbs, adverbs, adjectives or nouns  / • single words / • simple groups / • simple figurative language: as big as a house]				2
	• four or more precise words or word groups	• single precise words • modal adjectives and adverbs [ultimate, certain, extreme, possibly, definitely, rarely] • precise word groups [duty of care, quick-minded person, a positive impact on society] • modal groups [it would seem that, it is unlikely that] • technical [habitat, life expectancy, politician, global warming, financial crisis] • nominalisations [probability, likelihood, short sightedness] • figurative language [alliteration, metaphor, simile, personification]	• four or more precise words or word groups (may be verbs, adverbs, adjectives or nouns)	• single precise words • effective simile • metaphor • attitudinal: simpered • evaluative: devout, aggressive, • technical: resuscitated • formal: To what do I owe this honour? • colloquial language for characters’ speech: Watcha doin? • alliteration • effective personification	3
	• sustained and consistent use of precise words and word groups that enhance the meaning (may be some inappropriate or inaccurate word choices)		• sustained and consistent use of precise words and word groups that enhance the meaning or mood may be occasional inappropriate or inaccurate word choice		4
	• a range of precise and effective words and word groups is used in a fluent and articulate manner language choice is well matched to the style of argument		• a range of precise and effective words and word groups used in a natural and articulate manner language choice is well matched to genre		5
Words are generally classified into two classes: Content words (or lexical items) describe objects and concepts. This class of words consists of nouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, noun groups, phrasal verbs and verb groups. Grammatical word classes (or structural words) consist of prepositions, articles, conjunctions, pronouns, and interjections.
6-Cohesion	The control of multiple threads and relationships across the text, achieved through the use of grammatical elements (referring words, text connectives, conjunctions) and lexical elements (substitutions, repetitions, word associations)		The control of multiple threads and relationships over the whole text, achieved through the use of referring words, substitutions, word associations and text connectives		0-4
	• symbols or drawings  • title only				0
	• links are missing or incorrect      • short script often confusing for the reader				1
	• some correct links between sentences (do not penalise for poor punctuation) • most referring words are accurate OR • longer text with cohesion controlled only in parts,  the reader may occasionally need to re-read and provide their own links to clarify meaning				2
	• May use - simple word associations - small selection of simple connectives and conjunctions and, if, so, when, because, not only ... but also, then, but, or		• small selection of simple connectives and conjunctions used: then, soon, and, but, or, then, suddenly, so, and then, when, ordinal numbers, only temporal connectives • often marked by the cumbersome repetition of nouns or unreferenced pronouns
	• controlled use of cohesive devices supports reader understanding meaning is clear on first reading and text flows well in a sustained piece of writing == • May use - word associations, - other connectives, however, although, therefore, additionally, instead, even though, finally, in saying this • there may be occasional lapses in referring words that track plural nouns		• cohesive devices are used correctly to support reader understanding • accurate use of referring words meaning is clear and text flows well in a sustained piece of writing == • other connectives used: later, meanwhile, instead, in the middle of, earlier, just as, usually, although, even though, such as, because, finally • word association to avoid repetition, e.g. synonyms, antonyms, word sets • control of narrative tense		3
	An extended, highly cohesive piece of writing showing continuity of ideas and tightly linked sections of text				4
	• a range of cohesive devices is used correctly and deliberately to enhance reading and support underlying relationships • consistent use of cohesive devices, e.g. referring words, ellipsis, text connectives, substitutions and word associations that enhance meaning		• a range of cohesive devices is used correctly and deliberately to enhance reading • consistent use of word associations and substitutions that enhance reading
7-Para-graphing	The segmenting of text into paragraphs that assists the reader to follow the line of argument		The segmenting of text into paragraphs that assists the reader to negotiate the narrative		Persuasive  0-3 ---------- Narrative 0-2
	• no correct use of paragraphing === • script may be a block of text • may be random breaks • may be a new line for every sentence (where the break is not used to separate ideas) • new line for a new speaker with no other paragraphing evident				0
	• writing is organised into paragraphs that are mainly focused on one idea or set of like ideas to assist the reader to digest chunks of text contains at least one correct paragraph break		writing is organised into paragraphs that are mainly focused on a single idea or set of like ideas that assist the reader in digesting chunks of text • paragraphs used to separate the introduction or conclusion from the body of the narrative (2 paragraphs) • paragraphs used to mark formulaic narrative structure (beginning, middle, and end) • indicates broad changes in time and scene or time ordered structure == • ideas are separated (paragraphs may contain some unrelated ideas) • paragraphs may be used to separate the body from the introduction and/or conclusion (two or three paragraphs)		1
	• all paragraphs are focused on one idea or set of like ideas -- at least one paragraph is logically constructed and contains a topic sentence and supporting detail paragraphs are mostly correct == • not all topic sentences are successful • the body needs at least two paragraphs • may use an extended one-sentence paragraph that contains an elaborated idea		• all paragraphs are focused on one idea or set of like ideas and enhance the narrative • deliberately structured to pace and direct the reader’s attention • single sentence may be used as a dramatic or final comment or for emphasis		2
	• paragraphing supports argument paragraphs are ordered and cumulatively build argument across text == • paragraphs are deliberately structured to pace and direct the reader’s attention • the single sentence may be used as a final comment for emphasis				3
8-Sentence Structure	The production of grammatically correct, structurally sound and meaningful sentences				0-6
	• no evidence of sentences == • drawings, symbols, a list of words, text fragments / • title only				0
	• some correct formation of sentences some meaning can be construed == • in general, control is very limited / • very short script (one sentence) • most sentences contain the same basic structures / • may be overuse of the conversational ‘and’ or ‘then’				1
	• correct sentences are mostly simple and/or compound sentences meaning is predominantly clear == • a short script that consists only of correct complex sentences (where there are no simple sentences) • text may include complex sentences that use one basic structure (two, if one is a projected clause) • two or more correct sentences required				2
	• most (approx. 80%) simple and compound sentences are correct, AND • some complex sentences are correct meaning is predominantly clear == • four or more correct sentences required / • simple sentences may contain some extension • experiments with basic structures in complex sentences (requires two or more types -three or more, if one is a projected clause)				3
	• most simple, compound and complex sentences are correct, OR • all simple, compound and complex sentences are correct but do not demonstrate variety meaning is clear == • more routine use and greater control of elaborating clauses and phrases in simple, compound and complex sentences • usually requires a sustained piece of writing / • allow for an occasional minor error				4
	• sentences are correct (allow for occasional error in more sophisticated structures) / • demonstrates variety meaning is clear and sentences enhance meaning				5
	Score 5 & 6 • shows control over a range of different structures (quantity, quality, and variety) VARIETY • clause types and patterns / • verbless, adjectival, adverbial, multiple, non-finite • clause position / • length and rhythm / • increased elaboration and extension / • stylistically appropriate choices
	• all sentences are correct (allow for occasional slip, e.g. a missing word) writing contains controlled and well-developed sentences that express precise meaning and are consistently effective				6
9-Punctuation	The use of correct and appropriate punctuation to aid the reading of the text				0-5
	• no evidence of correct sentence punctuation • title only				0
	• correct use of capital letters to start sentences OR full stops to end sentences (at least one correct sentence marker) punctuation is minimal and of little assistance to the reader				1
	• some correct use of sentence-level punctuation (at least two accurately punctuated sentences - beginning and end) OR • one correctly punctuated sentence AND some other punctuation correct where it is required (refer to list in additional information) provides some markers to assist reading				2
	• sentence-level punctuation mostly correct (minimum of 80% of five sentences punctuated correctly) AND some other punctuation correct (two or more examples of other punctuation) OR • accurate sentence punctuation with correct noun capitalisation and no stray capitals, nothing else used (four or more sentences) provides adequate markers to assist reading				3
	• all sentence punctuation correct (no stray capitals) / AND • mostly correct use of other punctuation including noun capitalisation provides accurate markers to enable smooth and efficient reading				4
	• writing contains the accurate use of all applicable punctuation provides precise markers to pace and control reading of the text				5
Sentence punctuation includes: • capital letters to begin sentences / • full stops, question marks, and exclamation marks to end sentences noun capitalisation includes: • first names and surnames / • titles: Mr, Mrs, Miss, Ms / • place names / • institution names / • days of week, months of year / • street names / • book and film titles / • holidays: Easter, Ramadan / • historic events: World War II other punctuation includes: • apostrophes to mark contractions and possession / • commas in lists / • commas to mark clauses and phrases / • quotation marks for direct speech • new line for each speaker / • capital letters and commas used within quotation marks / • quotation marks for text extracts and highlighted (sneer) quotes • brackets and dashes / • brackets for humorous or ironic asides / • colons and semicolons / • points of ellipsis • commas or semicolons to balance or create rhythm within sentences
10-Spelling	The accuracy of spelling and the difficulty of the words used				0-6
	• no conventional spelling // • copied stimulus material only				0
	• few examples of conventional spelling // • limited evidence (less than 20 words written)				1
	• correct spelling of most simple words AND some common words (at least two) errors evident in common words				2
	• correct spelling of most simple words AND most common words (at least 20)				3
	• correct spelling of simple words AND most common words AND at least two difficult words correct difficult words outnumber incorrect difficult words				4
	• correct spelling of simple words AND most common words AND at least 10 difficult words correct difficult words outnumber incorrect difficult words				5
	• correct spelling of all words AND at least 10 difficult words and some challenging words OR at least 15 difficult words if no challenging words in this category,  allowances can be made for very occasional (1 or 2) minor slips.				6
Simple words • words with two letters (an, be, hi, it, on, up) //• single-syllable words with – short vowel sounds / – consonant digraphs / – consonant blends  / – double final consonants (add, dull, hill, egg, less) //• high frequency short two-syllable words (into, undo, going, being, xray, xbox) // • high frequency words (all, bird, day, feet, food, for) Common words • single-syllable words with – two two-consonant blends and/or digraphs / – three-consonant blends (castle, gurgle, light square, stretch) / – common long vowels   //• multi-syllabic words with even stress patterns (hospital, important, littering) // • common homophones (too/two, there/their, write/right, hear/here, brake/break) //• common words with silent letters (comb, ghost, know, sign, sigh, whistle, wrong) // • single-syllable words ending in ould, ough, ey (could, cough, rough, though, through, key, they)  // • suffixes that don’t change the base word (adults, happening, jumped, sadly)  //• most rule-driven words: drop e, change y to I, double letter (boring, having, heavier, spitting) Difficult words • uneven stress patterns in multi-syllabic words (chocolate, desert/dessert, enemy, mineral, miracle) // • uncommon vowel patterns (drought, hygiene, palm, fuel) // • difficult subject-specific content words (disease, habitat, predator) // • difficult homophones (practice/practise, board/bored) // • suffixes where base word changes (generate/generation, prefer/preferred) // • consonant alternation patterns (confident/confidence) // • many three- and four-syllable words (invisible, organise, community) // • multi-syllabic (three or more) words ending in tion, sion, ture, ible/able, ent/ant, ful, el/al, elly/ally, gle Challenging words • unusual consonant patterns (guarantee) // • longer words with unstressed syllables (responsibility) // • suffixes to words ending in e, c or l (physically, changeable, plasticity) // • foreign words (lieutenant, nonchalant)

Useful links

ACARA
NAP National Assessment Program
UNSW Global Australia: Writing

Relevant Links
Literacy Net Industry Resources